Islam is the religion founded on the Arabian Peninsula by the prophet Muhammad ca.570-632) in the early seventh century C.E. Muhammad was a successful merchant from a prominent Bedouin tribe who began to receive revelations from the angel Gabriel while praying in a cave near Mecca on the Arabian Peninsula. He continued to receive these revelations—or, more properly,"recitations"—on and off for over 20 years. Muhammad recited the revelations to close associates who recorded them and later collected them into the primary sacred text of Islam, the Qur'an. Qur'an means recitation.

Islam is staunchly monotheistic, tracing itself back to the religion and God of Abraham, the patriarch of Judaism. The term islam is Arabic for surrender or obedience to God. A Muslim is one who has surrendered to Allah, which is Arabic for God. The underlying impetus in Islam is to surrender to God in every aspect of life. People are drawn to the universality of Islam's message, the simplicity and elegance of its doctrine, and the striking imagery of an all-powerful, all-merciful God. From its phenomenal initial spread within a century of the death of its founder, Islam has become the fastest growing religion in the world, with over one billion adherents.

Islam

God

Monotheism did not come to the Arabian Peninsula with Muhammad. Both Judaism and Christianity had a presence there long before Muhammad's birth, and he was familiar with the teachings of both traditions. Muhammad's monotheism—which later became the religion of Islam—differed from both the Jewish and Christian varieties in important respects. First, Allah (God) chooses no special group or tribe of people to be "his people" as in Jewish monotheism. All people are equal in Allah's eyes. Second, Allah is one and indivisible, not divided into a Trinity as in Christian monotheism. Additionally, Islam prohibits the use of icons or pictorial imagery of God more definitively than Christianity. Allah cannot be contained in synthetic form and to even attempt to do so is considered blasphemy, a reduction, and a temptation to worship something other than the one, true God.

The following readings are from the Qur'an and the Hadith, the official collection of traditions of the prophet Muhammad and his companions. These readings demonstrate the centrality and nature of Allah in Islam, as well as Islam's link to the other great monotheisms. Qur'an 1:1-7 is a brief statement of the spiritual essence of Islam—surrender to God and his commands. This sura, or chapter, serves as an opening prayer to all other prayers in Islam. Suras 2, 3, and 5 summarize the history of Allah's revelations through the Jewish and Christian prophets, including Jesus. According to Islam, true worship of Allah was compromised at various points in the history of both traditions, so much so that a final, perfect, and complete revelation through Muhammad and the Qur'an became necessary. In these readings, Allah uses Gabriel as a mouthpiece to recount the errors and vices of the ancient Israelites and early Christians, the "people of the Book." He exhorts them to return to pure worship of God as it is outlined in the Qur'an.

According to Islamic doctrine, ancient Israel erred by turning its worship away from God onto idols like the golden calf. This history is recounted here in the Qur'an, as well as in the Hebrew Bible. The chief error of Christianity, according to Islamic doctrine, is that the followers of Jesus mistook him for a god instead of the prophet he was. Islam emphasizes the role of prophets in God's revelation to people throughout history. Muhammad himself is viewed as the last and final prophet of God, and his message completes the revelation of God for all time. To identify a man with Allah, however, is inconceivable in Islam; not even Muhammad, the last and final prophet, is to be equated with God. The following passages from the Qur'an show the Islamic view of Jesus. Sura 3 fully affirms his miraculous birth to a virgin Mary, as well as his calling as a messenger of God, both to the Jews as purifier of Jewish teaching and to all others as a healer, miracle worker, and messenger of "good news." Suras 5 and 112, however, rebuke the Christian tradition for twisting Jesus' gospel into a self-serving message of his own divinity. In these passages, Islam flatly refutes equating Jesus with God and any notion that God is a being who either "begets" or can be "begotten." Allah utterly transcends such anthropomorphisms; Allah's messengers are never to be mistaken for Allah himself. Jesus himself, according to Islam, did not commit this grievous error. But his followers strayed from the path of true worship of Allah and chose, instead, to worship a man whose beginning was the same as Adam's—dust.

The Hadith reading demonstrates most powerfully the vast, all-encompassing dimension of Allah by describing him with 99 names. Many Muslims memorize the 99 names, recite them in prayers, and meditate upon them to understand God more and draw closer to him. Muslims may use prayer beads divided into sets of 33 to help memorize the names. One of the most famous reflections on the 99 names is that of Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (1058-1111), a brilliant expositor of Islamic theology, jurisprudence, and Sufism (Islam mysticism). In this selection, al-Ghazali shows how reflection on the particulars of the divine names can help answer difficult questions about evil and suffering in the world, as well as illumine dimensions of the nature of God that compel worship. Note the universality of God and his mercy, the utter transcendence and "otherness" of God compared to anything human, and the ultimate surrender to God's greatness and mercy in the face of what seems to be blatant evil. In short, God is God and we are not, and God is to be praised.

God

Qur'an 1:1-7

1. In the name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful.

2. Praise be to Allah, the Cherisher and Sustainer of the Worlds;

3. Most Gracious, Most Merciful;

4. Master of the Day of Judgment.

5. Thee do we worship, and Thine aid we seek.

6. Show us the straight way.

7. The way of those on whom Thou hast bestowed Thy Grace, Those whose (portion) is not wrath, and who go not astray.

God

Qur'an 2:49-115

49. And remember, We delivered you from the people of Pharaoh: they set you hard tasks and punishments, slaughtered your sons and let your womenfolk live; therein was a tremendous trial from your Lord.

50. And remember We divided the sea for you and saved you and drowned Pharaoh's people within your very sight.

51. And remember We appointed forty nights for Moses, and in his absence you took the calf (for worship), and ye did grievous wrong.

52. Even then We did forgive you; there was a chance for you to be grateful.

53. And remember We gave Moses the Scripture and the Criterion (between right and wrong), there was a chance for you to be guided aright.

54. And remember Moses said to his people: "O my people! Ye have indeed wronged yourselves by your worship of the calf, so turn (in repentance) to your Maker, and slay yourselves (the wrongdoers); that will be better for you in the sight of your Maker." Then He turned toward you (in forgiveness): for He is Oft-returning, Most Merciful.

55. And remember ye said: "O Moses! we shall never believe in thee until we see Allah manifestly," but ye were dazed with thunder and lightning even as ye looked on.

56. Then We raised you up after your death; Ye had the chance to be grateful.

57. And We gave You the shade of clouds and sent down to you manna and quails, saying: "Eat of the good things We have provided for you"; (but they rebelled); to Us they did no harm, but they harmed their own souls.

58. And remember We said: "Enter this town, and eat of the plenty therein as ye wish; but enter the gate with humility, in posture and in words, and We shall forgive you your faults and increase (the portion of) those who do good."

59. But the transgressors changed the word from that which had been given them; so We sent on the transgressors a plague from heaven, for that they infringed (our command) repeatedly.

60. And remember Moses prayed for water for his people; We said: "Strike the rock with thy staff." Then gushed forth therefrom twelve springs. Each group knew its own place for water. So eat and drink of the sustenance provided by Allah and do no evil nor mischief on the (face of the) earth.

61. And remember ye said: "O Moses! we cannot endure one kind of food (always); so beseech thy Lord for us to produce for us of what the earth groweth, its pot-herbs, and cucumbers, its garlic, lentils, and onions." He said: "will ye exchange the better for the worse? Go ye down to any town, and ye shall find what ye want!" They were covered with humiliation and misery; they drew on themselves the wrath of Allah. This because they went on rejecting the Signs of Allah and slaying His messengers without just cause. This because They rebelled and went on transgressing.

62. Those who believe (in the Qur'an) and those who follow the Jewish (Scriptures), and the Christians and the Sabians, and who believe in Allah and the last day, and work righteousness, shall have their reward with their Lord; on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve.

63. And remember We took your covenant and We raised above you (the towering height) of Mount (Sinai) (saying): "Hold firmly to what We have given you and bring (ever) to remembrance what is therein, perchance ye may fear Allah."

64. But ye turned back thereafter, had it not been for the Grace and Mercy of Allah to you, ye had surely been among the lost.

65. And well ye knew those amongst you who transgressed in the matter of the Sabbath; We said to them: "Be ye apes, despised and rejected."

66. So We made it an example to their own time, and to their posterity, and a lesson to those who fear Allah.

67. And remember Moses said to his people: "Allah commands that ye sacrifice a heifer." They said: "Makest thou a laughing-stock of us?" He said: "Allah save me from being an ignorant (fool)!"

68. They said: "Beseech on our behalf thy Lord to make plain to us what (heifer) it is!" He said: "He says: The heifer should be neither too old nor too young, but of middling age; Now do what ye are commanded!"

69. They said: "Beseech on our behalf thy Lord to make plain to us her color." He said: "He says: A fawn-colored heifer, pure and rich in tone, the admiration of beholders!"

70. They said, "Beseech on our behalf thy Lord to make plain to us what she is, to us are all heifers alike; we wish indeed for guidance, if Allah wills."

71. He said: "He says: A heifer not trained to till the soil or water the fields; sound and without blemish." They said: "Now hast thou brought the truth." Then they offered her in sacrifice, but not with goodwill.

72. Remember ye slew a man and fell into a dispute among yourselves as to the crime: but Allah was to bring forth what ye did hide.

73. So We said: "Strike the (body) with a piece of the (heifer)." Thus Allah bringeth the dead to life and showeth you His Signs, perchance ye may understand.

74. Thenceforth were your hearts hardened; they became like a rock and even worse in hardness. For among rocks there are some from which rivers gush forth; others there are which when split asunder send forth water; and others which sink for fear of Allah. And Allah is not unmindful of what ye do.

75. Can ye (O ye men of Faith) entertain the hope that they will believe in you? Seeing that a party of them heard the word of Allah, and perverted it knowingly after they understood it.

76. Behold! when they meet the men of Faith, they say: "We believe," but when they meet each other in private, they say: "Shall you tell them what Allah hath revealed to you, that they may engage you in argument about it before your Lord?" Do ye not understand (their aim)?

77. Know they not that Allah knoweth what they conceal and what they reveal?

78. And there are among them illiterates, who know not the Book but (see therein their own) desires, and they do nothing but conjecture.

79. Then woe to those who write the Book with their own hands and then say: "This is from Allah," to traffic with it for miserable price! Woe to them for what their hands do write, and for the gain they make thereby.

80. And they say: "The Fire shall not touch us but for a few numbered days"; Say: "Have ye taken a promise from Allah for He never breaks His promise? Or is it that ye say of Allah what ye do not know?"

81. Nay, those who seek gain in Evil, and are girt round by their sins, they are Companions of the Fire, therein shall they abide (forever).

82. But those who have faith and work righteousness, they are Companions of the Garden, therein shall they abide (forever).

83. And remember We took a Covenant from the Children of Israel (to this effect): worship none but Allah; treat with kindness your parents and kindred, and orphans and those in need; speak fair to the people; be steadfast in prayer; and practice regular charity. Then did ye turn back, except a few among you, and ye backslide (even now).

84. And remember We took your Covenant (to this effect): shed no blood amongst you, nor turn out your own people from your homes; and this ye solemnly ratified, and to this ye can bear witness.

85. After this it is ye, the same people, who slay among yourselves, and banish a party of you from their homes; assist (their enemies) against them, in guilt and rancor; and if they come to you as captives, ye ransom them, though it was not lawful for you to banish them. Then is it only a part of the Book that ye believe in, and do ye reject the rest? But what is the reward for those among you who behave like this, but disgrace in this life? and on the Day of Judgment they shall be consigned to the most grievous penalty. For Allah is not unmindful of what ye do.

86. These are the people who buy the life of this world at the price of the Hereafter; their penalty shall not be lightened, nor shall they be helped.

87. We gave Moses the Book and followed him up with a succession of Apostles; We gave Jesus the son of Mary clear (Signs) and strengthened him with the Holy Spirit. Is it that whenever there comes to you an Apostle with what ye yourselves desire not, ye are puffed up with pride? Some ye called impostors, and others ye slay!

88. They say, "Our hearts are the wrappings (which preserve Allah's word, we need no more)." Nay, Allah's curse is on them for their blasphemy; little is it they believe.

89. And when there comes to them a Book from Allah, confirming what is with them, although from of old they had prayed for victory against those without faith, when there comes to them that which they (should) have recognized, they refuse to believe in it, but the curse of Allah is on those without Faith.

90. Miserable is the price for which they have sold their souls, in that they deny (the revelation) which Allah has sent down, in insolent envy that Allah of His Grace should send it to any of His servants He pleases; thus have they drawn on themselves wrath upon wrath. And humiliating is the punishment of those who reject Faith.

91. When it is said to them: "Believe in what Allah hath sent down," they say, "We believe in what was sent down to us;" yet they reject all besides, even if it be truth confirming what is with them. Say: "Why then have ye slain the prophets of Allah in times gone by, if ye did indeed believe?"

92. There came to you Moses with clear (Signs); yet ye worshipped the Calf (even) after that, and ye did behave wrongfully.

93. And remember We took your Covenant and We raised above you (the towering height) of Mount (Sinai), (saying): "Hold firmly to what We have given you and hearken (to the Law)"; they said: "We hear, and we disobey": and they had to drink into their hearts (of the taint) of the calf because of their faithlessness. Say: "Vile indeed are the behests of your faith if ye have any faith!"

94. Say: "If the last Home, with Allah, be for you specially, and not for anyone else, then seek ye for death, if ye are sincere."

95. But they will never seek for death, on account of the (sins) which their hands have sent on before them. And Allah is well acquainted with the wrongdoers.

96. Thou wilt indeed find them, of all people, most greedy of life, even more than the idolaters; each one of them wishes he could be given a life of a thousand years; but the grant of such life will not save him from (due) punishment, for Allah sees well all that they do.

97. Say: Whoever is an enemy to Gabriel, for he brings down the (revelation) to thy heart by Allah's will, a confirmation of what went before, and guidance and glad tidings for those who believe.

98. Whoever is an enemy to Allah and His angels and apostles, to Gabriel and Michael, Lo! Allah is an enemy to those who reject faith.

99. We have sent down to thee manifest Signs (ayat); and none reject them, but those who are perverse.

100. Is it not (the case) that every time they make a Covenant, some party among them throw it aside? - Nay, most of them are faithless.

101. And when there came to them an Apostle from Allah, confirming what was with them, a party of the people of the Book threw away the Book of Allah behind their backs, as if (it had been something) they did not know!

102. They followed what the evil ones gave out (falsely) against the power of Solomon: the blasphemers were, not Solomon, but the evil ones, teaching men magic, and such things as came down at Babylon to the angels Harut and Marut. But neither of these taught anyone (such things) without saying: "We are only for trial, so do not blaspheme." They learned from them the means to sow discord between man and wife. But they could not thus harm anyone except by Allah's permission. And they learned what harmed them, not what profited them. And they knew that the buyers of (magic) would have no share in the happiness of the Hereafter. And vile was the price for which they did sell their souls, if they but knew!

103. If they had kept their faith and guarded themselves from evil, far better had been the reward from their Lord, if they but knew!

104. O ye of Faith! say not (to the Apostle words of ambiguous import, but words of respect; and hearken (to him): to those without faith is a grievous punishment.

105. It is never the wish of those without faith among the people of the Book, nor of the Pagans, that anything good should come down to you from your Lord. But Allah will choose for His special Mercy whom He will, for Allah is Lord of grace abounding.

106. None of Our revelations do We abrogate or cause to be forgotten, but We substitute something better or similar; knowest thou not that Allah hath power over all things?

107. Knowest thou not that to Allah belongeth the dominion of the heavens and the earth? And besides Him ye have neither patron nor helper.

108. Would ye question your Apostle as Moses was questioned of old? But whoever changeth from faith to unbelief, hath strayed without doubt from the even way.

109. Quite a number of the people of the Book wish they could turn you (people) back to infidelity after ye have believed. From selfish envy, after the truth hath become manifest unto them; but forgive and overlook, till Allah accomplish His purpose; for Allah hath power over all things.

110. And be steadfast in prayer and regular in charity: and whatever good ye send forth for your souls before you, ye shall find it with Allah; for Allah sees well all that ye do.

111. And they say: "None shall enter Paradise unless he be a Jew or a Christian." Those are their (vain) desires. Say: "Produce your proof if ye are truthful."

112. Nay, whoever submits his whole self to Allah and is a doer of good, he will get his reward with his Lord; on such shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve.

113. The Jews say: "The Christians have naught (to stand) upon"; and the Christians say: "The Jews have naught (to stand) upon." Yet they (profess to) study the (same) Book. Like unto their word is what those say who know not, but Allah will judge between them in their quarrel on the Day of Judgment.

114. And who is more unjust than he who forbids that in places for the worship of Allah, Allah's name should be celebrated? Whose zeal is (in fact) to ruin them? It was not fitting that such should themselves enter them except in fear. For them there is nothing but disgrace in this world, and in the world to come, an exceeding torment.

115. To Allah belong the East and the West; whithersoever ye turn, there is the presence of Allah. For Allah is All-Pervading, All-Knowing.

God

Qur'an 3:42-71

42. Behold! the angels said: "O Mary! Allah hath chosen thee and purified thee; chosen thee above the women of all nations.

43. "O Mary! worship thy Lord devoutly; prostrate thyself, and bow down (in prayer) with those who bow down."

44. This is part of the tidings of the things unseen, which We reveal unto thee (O Apostle!) by inspiration; thou wast not with them when they cast lots with arrows, as to which of them should be charged with the care of Mary; nor wast thou with them when they disputed (the point).

45. Behold! the angels said "O Mary! Allah giveth thee glad tidings of a Word from Him: his name will be Christ Jesus, the son of Mary, held in honor in this world and the Hereafter and of (the company of) those nearest to Allah.

46. "He shall speak to the people in childhood and in maturity, and he shall be (of the company) of the righteous."

47. She said: "O my Lord! how shall I have a son when no man hath touched me?" He said: "Even so: Allah createth what He willeth; when He hath decreed a plan, He but saith to it 'Be,' and it is!

48. "And Allah will teach him the Book and Wisdom, the Law and the Gospel,

49. "And (appoint him) an apostle to the Children of Israel, (with this message): "'I have come to you, with a Sign from your Lord, in that I make for you out of clay, as it were, the figure of a bird, and breathe into it, and it becomes a bird by Allah's leave; and I heal those born blind, and the lepers, and I quicken the dead, by Allah's leave; and I declare to you what ye eat, and what ye store in your houses. Surely therein is a Sign for you if ye did believe.

50. "(I have come to you), to attest the Law which was before me, and to make lawful to you part of what was (before) forbidden to you; I have come to you with a Sign from your Lord. So fear Allah, and obey me.

51. "It is Allah Who is my Lord and your Lord; then worship Him. This is a way that is straight."

52. When Jesus found unbelief on their part he said: "Who will be my helpers to (the work of) Allah?" Said the Disciples: "We are Allah's helpers, we believe in Allah, and do thou bear witness that we are Muslims.

53. "Our Lord! we believe in what thou hast revealed, and we follow the Apostle; then write us down among those who bear witness."

54. And (then unbelievers) plotted and planned, and Allah too planned, and the best of planners is Allah.

55. Behold! Allah said: "O Jesus! I will take thee and raise thee to Myself and clear thee (of the falsehoods) of those who blaspheme; I will make those who follow thee superior to those who reject Faith, to the Day of Resurrection; then shall ye all return unto Me, and I will judge between you of the matters wherein ye dispute.

56. "As to those who reject faith, I will punish them with terrible agony in this world and in the Hereafter, nor will they have anyone to help.

57. "As to those who believe and work righteousness, Allah will pay them (in full) their reward; but Allah loveth not those who do wrong.

58. "This is what We rehearse unto thee of the Signs and the Message of Wisdom."

59. The similitude of Jesus before Allah is as that of Adam. He created him from dust, then said to him: "Be," and he was.

60. The truth (comes) from Allah alone; so be not of those who doubt.

61. If any one disputes in this matter with thee, now after (full) knowledge hath come to thee, say: "Come! let us gather together, our sons and your sons, our women and your women, ourselves and yourselves: then let us earnestly pray, and invoke the curse of Allah on those who lie!"

62. This is the true account: there is no god except Allah; and Allah—He is indeed the Exalted in Power, the Wise.

63. But if they turn back, Allah hath full knowledge of those who do mischief.

64. Say: "O people of the Book! come to common terms as between us and you: that we worship none but Allah; that we associate no partners with him; that we erect not, from among ourselves, Lords and patrons other than Allah." If then they turn back, say: "Bear witness that we (at least) are Muslims (bowing to Allah's Will)."

65. Ye people of the Book! why dispute ye about Abraham, when the Law and the Gospel were not revealed till after him? Have ye no understanding?

66. Ah! ye are those who fell to disputing (even) in matters of which ye had some knowledge! but why dispute ye in matters of which ye have no knowledge? It is Allah Who knows, and ye who know not!

67. Abraham was not a Jew nor yet a Christian, but he was true in faith, and bowed his will to Allah's (which is Islam), and he joined not gods with Allah.

68. Without doubt, among men the nearest of kin to Abraham are those who follow him, as are also this Apostle and those who believe; and Allah is the Protector of those who have faith.

69. It is the wish of a section of the people of the Book to lead you astray. But they shall lead astray (not you), but themselves and they do not perceive!

70. Ye people of the Book! Why reject ye the Signs of Allah, of which ye are (yourselves) witnesses?

71. Ye people of the Book! Why do ye clothe truth with falsehood, and conceal the truth, while ye have knowledge?

God

Qur'an 5:65-76

65. If only the people of the Book had believed and been righteous, We should indeed have blotted out their iniquities and admitted them to Gardens of Bliss.

66. If only they had stood fast by the Law, the Gospel, and all the revelation that was sent to them from their Lord, they would have enjoyed happiness from every side. There is from among them a party on the right course; but many of them follow a course that is evil.

67. O Apostle! proclaim the (Message) which hath been sent to thee from thy Lord. If thou didst not, thou wouldst not have fulfilled and proclaimed His mission: and Allah will defend thee from men (who mean mischief). For Allah guideth not those who reject faith.

68. Say: "O people of the Book! ye have no ground to stand upon unless ye stand fast by the Law, the Gospel, and all the revelation that has come to you from your Lord." It is the revelation that cometh to thee from thy Lord, that increaseth in most of them their obstinate rebellion and blasphemy. But sorrow thou not over (these) people without Faith.

69. Those who believe (in the Qur'an), those who follow the Jewish (Scriptures), and the Sabians and the Christians—any who believe in Allah and the Last Day, and work righteousness—on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve.

70. We took the covenant of the Children of Israel and sent them Apostles. Every time there came to them an Apostle with what they themselves desired not—some (of these) they called impostors, and some they (go so far as to) slay.

71. They thought there would be no trial (or punishment); so they became blind and deaf; yet Allah (in mercy) turned to them: yet again many of them became blind and deaf. But Allah sees well all that they do.

72. They do blaspheme who say: "Allah is Christ the son of Mary." But said Christ: "O Children of Israel! Worship Allah, my Lord and your Lord." Whoever joins other gods with Allah—Allah will forbid him the garden, and the Fire will be his abode. There will for the wrongdoers be no one to help.

73. They do blaspheme who say: Allah is one of three in a Trinity: for there is no god except One Allah. If they desist not from their word (of blasphemy), verily a grievous penalty will befall the blasphemers among them.

74. Why turn they not to Allah, and seek His forgiveness? For Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful.

75. Christ the son of Mary was no more than an Apostle; many were the Apostles that passed away before him. His mother was a woman of truth. They had both to eat their (daily) food. See how Allah doth make His signs clear to them; yet see in what ways they are deluded away from the truth!

76. Say: "Will ye worship, besides Allah, something which hath no power either to harm or benefit you? But Allah–He it is that heareth and knoweth all things."

God

Qur'an 5:116-118

116. And behold! Allah will say "O Jesus the son of Mary! didst thou say unto men, "Worship me and my mother as gods in derogation of Allah"? He will say: "Glory to Thee! never could I say what I had no right (to say). Had I said such a thing, Thou wouldst indeed have known it. Thou knowest what is in my heart, though I know not what is in Thine. For Thou knowest in full all that is hidden.

117. "Never said I to them aught except what Thou didst command me to say, to wit, 'Worship Allah, my Lord and your Lord'; and I was a witness over them whilst I dwelt amongst them; when Thou didst take me up, thou wast the Watcher over them, and Thou art a Witness to all things.

118. "If Thou dost punish them, they are Thy servants: if Thou dost forgive them, Thou art the Exalted; the Wise."

God

Qur'an 112:1-4

1. Say: He is Allah, the One and Only;

2. Allah, the Eternal, Absolute;

3. He begetteth not, nor is He begotten;

4. And there is none like unto Him.

Qur'an 1:1-7, 2:49-115, 3:42-71, 5:65-76, 5:116-118, 112:1-4

Questions for Discussion

Chapter 1

1. What is worshiping Allah?
2. Is worshiping Allah different from petitioning Allah for help?
3. Is the straight way only for those on whom Allah already has bestowed Grace?
4. Does following the straight way lead to the bestowing of Grace by Allah?

Chapter 2

1. Why is so much emphasis placed on people remembering the history of their relation to Allah?

Verse 58

2. How did the transgressors change the word from that which had been given to them?
3. What does it mean to be a "people of the Book"?
4. According to Islam, what place do the histories of Judaism and Christianity have in the history of Allah's relation to mankind?

Verse 112

5. What does it mean to submit one's whole self to Allah?

Chapter 3

Verse 50

1. What does it mean that what was previously forbidden is now to be made lawful?

Verse 52

2. Why do the disciples of Jesus ask him to bear witness that they are Muslims?

Verse 59

3. What does it mean that Jesus before Allah is like Adam?

Verse 64

4. How does one know what Allah's will is, so as to bear witness and bow to it?

Verse 66

5. Why are some kinds of disputation condemned?

Chapter 5

Verse 68

1. Why is it "the revelation that cometh to thee from thy Lord" that increases obstinate rebellion and blasphemy?

Verse 117

2. What does Jesus mean by saying, "I was a witness over them whilst I dwelt amongst them"?

Chapter 5

1. What does it mean to say "there is none like unto Him"?

God

Hadith: 99 Names of God

The Names of Allah, the Exalted, and the Merit of One who Enumerates Them

(6475) Abu Huraira reported Allah's Messenger (may peace be upon him) as saying: There are ninety-nine names of Allah; he who commits them to memory would get into Paradise. Verily, Allah is Odd (He is one, and it is an odd number) and He loves odd number. And in the narration of Ibn 'Umar (the words are): "He who enumerated them."

(6476) Abu Huraira reported Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) as saying: Verily, there are ninety-nine names for Allah, i.e. hundred excepting one. He who enumerates them would get into Paradise. And Hammam has made this addition on the authority of Abu Huraira who reported it from Allah's Apostle (may peace be upon him) that he said: "He is Odd (one) and loves odd number."

(1) Allah;

(2) al-Rahman (The Compassionate);

(3) al-Rahim (The Merciful);

(4) al-Malik (The King, The Sovereign);

(5) al-Quddus (The Holy);

(6) al-Salam (The Author of Safety);

(7) al- Mu'min (The Giver of Peace);

(8) al-Muhaimin (The Protector);

(9) al-'Aziz (The Strong);

(10) al-Jabbar (The Compeller);

(11) al-Mutakabbir (The Majestic);

(12) al-Khaliq (The Creator);

(13) al-Bari (The Maker);

(14) al-Musawwir (The Fashioner);

(15) al-Ghaffar (The Great Forgiver);

(16) al-Qahhar (The Dominant);

(17) al-Wahhab (The Bestower);

(18) al-Razzaq (The Sustainer);

(19) al-Fattah (The Opener, The Reliever, The Judge);

(20) al-'Alim (The All-Knowing);

(21) al-Qabid (The Retainer, The Withholder);

(22) al-Basit (The Enlarger);

(23) al-Khafid (The Pleaser);

(24) al-Rafi' (The Elevator);

(25) al-Mu'izz (The Honorer);

(26) al-Mudhill (The Humiliator);

(27) al-Sami' (The All-Hearing, The Hearer);

(28) al-Basir (The All-Seeing);

(29) al-Hakam (The Judge);

(30) al-'Adl (The Just);

(31) al-Latif (The Subtle);

(32) al-Khabir (The Gracious, The Aware);

(33) al-Halim (The Clement, The Forebearing);

(34) al-'Azim (The Mighty);

(35) al-Ghafur (The Forgiving);

(36) al-Shakur (The Grateful, The Appreciative);

(37) al-'Aliyy (The High, The Sublime);

(38) al-Kabir (The Great);

(39) al-Hafiz (The Preserver);

(40) al-Muqit (The Protector, The Guardian, The Feeder, The Sustainer);

(41) al-Hasib (The Reckoner);

(42) al-Jalil (The Beneficent);

(43) al-Karim (The Bountiful, The Gracious);

(44) al-Raqib (The Watcher, The Watchful);

(45) al-Mujib (The Responsive, The Hearkener);

(46) al-Wasi' (The Vast, The All-Embracing);

(47) al-Hakim al-Mutlaq (The Judge of Judges);

(48) al-Wadud (The Loving);

(49) al-Majid (The Glorious);

(50) al-Ba'ith (The Raiser [from death], The True);

(51) al-Shahid (The Witness);

(52) al-Haqq (The Truth, The True);

(53) al-Wakil (The Trustee);

(54) al-Qawiyy (The Strong);

(55) al-Matin (The Firm);

(56) al-Waliyy (The Protecting Friend);

(57) al-Hamid (The Praiseworthy);

(58) al-Muhsi (The Counter);

(59) al-Mubdi (The Originator);

(60) al-Mu'id (The Reproducer);

(61) al-Muhyi (The Restorer, The Giver of Life);

(62) al-Mumit (The Destroyer);

(63) al-Hayy (The Alive);

(64) al-Qayyum (The Self-Subsisting);

(65) al-Wajid (The Perceiver);

(66) al-Wahid (The One);

(67) al-Samad (The Independent);

(68) al-Qadir (The Capable);

(69) al-Muqtadir (The Dominant);

(70) al-Muqaddim (The Promoter);

(71) al-Mu'akhkhir (The Retarder);

(72) al-Awwal (The First);

(73) al-Akhir (The Last);

(74) al-Zahir (The Manifest);

(75) al-Batin (The Hidden);

(76) al-Wali (The Governor);

(77) al-Muta'ali (The High Exalted);

(78) al-Barr (The Righteous);

(79) al-Tawwab (The Relenting);

(80) al-'Afuww (The Forgiver);

(81) al-Muntaqim (The Avenger);

(82) al-Ra'uf (The Compassionate);

(83) Malik al-Mulk (The Owner of Sovereignty);

(84) Dhu'l-Jalal wa'l-Ikram (The Lord of Majesty and Bounty);

(85) al-Muqsit (The Equitable);

(86) al-Jami' (The Gatherer, The Collector);

(87) al-Ghani (The Self-Sufficient);

(88) al-Mughni (The Enricher);

(89) al-Mu'ti (The Bestower, The Giver);

(90) al-Mani' (The Withholder);

(91) al-Nafi' (The Propitious);

(92) al-Darr (The Distresser);

(93) al-Nur (The Light);

(94) al-Hadi (The Guide);

(95) al-Azuli (The Eternal);

(96) al-Baqi (The Everlasting);

(97) al-Warith (The Heir);

(98) al-Rashid (The Guide to the Right Path);

(99) al-Sabur (The Patient).

Hadith: 99 Names of God

Questions for Discussion

1. Would Allah be different if Allah had only one name?
2. Is one of these names more important than the others?

God

Al-Ghazali Commentary

from The Ninety-nine Beautiful Names of God, translated by David B. Burrell and Nazih Daher (Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society, 1992), 51-57.

As for His saying Allah, it is a name for the true existent, the one who unites the attributes of divinity, is subject of the attributes of lordship, and unique in true existence. . . .

A lesson. You should know that this name is the greatest of the ninety-nine names of God—great and glorious—because it refers to the essence which unites all the attributes of divinity, so that none of them is left out, whereas each of the remaining names only refers to a single attribute: knowledge, power, agency, and the rest. . . .

Counsel. Man's share in this name should be for him to become godlike, by which I mean that his heart and his aspiration be taken up with God—great and glorious, that he does not look towards anything other than Him nor pay attention to what is not He, that he neither implore nor fear anyone but Him. How could it be otherwise? For it had already been understood from his name that He is the truly actual Existent, and that everything other than He is ephemeral, perishing and worthless except in relation to Him. [The Servant] sees himself first of all as the first of the perishing and worthless, as did the messenger of God—may God's grace and peace be upon him—when he said: "the truest verse uttered by the Arabs was Labid's saying:

Surely everything except God is vain,
And every happiness is doubtless ephemeral."

2, 3. Al-Rahman, Al-Rahim—The Infinitely Good, the Merciful—are two names derived from "mercy." Mercy requires an object of mercy, and no one is an object of mercy unless he be in need. Yet the one by whom the needs of the needy are fulfilled will not be called merciful if that is accomplished without intention, volition, or concern for the one in need. Nor is one called merciful who wants to fulfill their needs yet does not meet them even though he be able to fulfill them, because if the will were there he would have carried it out. But if he be unable to fulfill them, he is still called merciful—though in a deficient sense—in view of the empathy which affected him. Perfect mercy is pouring out benefaction to those in need, and directing it to them, for their care; and inclusive mercy is when it embraces deserving and undeserving alike. The mercy of God—great and glorious—is both perfect and inclusive: perfect inasmuch as it wants to fulfill the needs of those in need and does meet them; and inclusive inasmuch as it embraces both deserving and undeserving, encompassing this world and the next, and includes bare necessities and needs, and special gifts over and above them. So He is utterly and truly merciful.

Implications. Mercy is not without a painful empathy which affects the merciful, and moves him to satisfy the needs of the one receiving mercy. Yet the Lord—praise be to Him most high—transcends that, so you may think that this diminishes the meaning of mercy. But you should know that this is a perfection and does not diminish the meaning of mercy. It is not diminished inasmuch as the perfection of mercy depends on the perfection of its fruits. So long as the needs of those in need are perfectly fulfilled, the one who receives mercy has no need of suffering or distress in the merciful one; rather the suffering of the merciful only stems from a weakness and defect in himself. Moreover, this weakness adds nothing to the goal of those in need once their needs have been perfectly fulfilled. So far as God's mercy perfectly fulfilling the meaning of mercy is concerned, we should recall that one who is merciful out of empathy and suffering comes close to intending to alleviate his own suffering and sensitivity by his actions, thereby looking after himself and seeking his own goals, and that would take away from the perfection of the meaning of mercy. Rather, the perfection of mercy consists in looking after the one receiving mercy for the sake of the one receiving mercy, and not for the sake of being relieved from one's own suffering and sensitivity.

Lesson. Al-Rahman is more specific than Al-Rahim, in that no one except God—great and glorious—is named by it whereas Al-Rahim may be used for others. . . . The Infinitely Good is He who loves men, first by creating them; second, by guiding them to faith and to the means of salvation; third, by making them happy in the next world; and fourth, by granting them the contemplation of His noble face. . . .

A question and its answer. You might say: what does it mean for Him, the most high, to be merciful and to be the most merciful of those who are merciful? For one who is merciful does not see people afflicted or injured, tormented or sick, without hastening to remove that condition when he can do so. But the Lord—praise to Him most high—has the power to meet every affliction, to stave off every need and distress, to eliminate every sickness, and to remove every harm, even though He leaves His servants to be tried by disasters and hardships while the world is overflowing with disease, calamities, and tribulations, yet He is able to remove them all. The merciful one certainly wants good for the one who receives mercy. Yet there is no evil in existence which does not contain some good within it, and were that evil to be eliminated, the good within it would be nullified, and the final result would be an evil worse than the evil containing the good. The certain amputation of a hand is an evident evil, yet within it lies an ample good: the health of the body. If one were to forego the amputation of the hand, the body would perish as a result—a worse evil still. So amputating a hand for the health of the body is an evil which contains good within it. But the primary intention which comes first in the consideration of one amputating is health—an unadulterated good. Yet since amputating the hand is the way to achieve it, amputation is intended for the sake of that good; so health was sought for itself first, and amputation second for the sake of the other and not for itself. They both enter into the intention, but one of them is intended for itself and the other for the sake of the first, and what is intended for its own sake takes precedence over that which is intended for the sake of the other; here the saying of God—great and glorious—is a propos: "My mercy precedes My anger." His anger is His intending evil, so evil is by His intention, while His mercy is His intending good, [so good is by His intention]. But if He intended good for the good itself, yet intended evil not for itself but because there is some good within it; then good is accomplished essentially but evil is accomplished accidentally, and each according to divine decree. So nothing here goes against mercy at all.

The answer to your [problem] is that a small child's mother may be tender towards him and so keep him from undergoing cupping², while the wise father makes him do it by force. An ignorant person thinks that the compassionate one is the mother rather than the father, while the intelligent understand that the father's hurting him by cupping reflects the perfection of his mercy and love as well as the completeness of his compassion; whereas the mother was his enemy in the guise of a friend, since a little suffering, when it is a cause of great joy, is not evil but good.

Now, if a particular evil occurs to you without your seeing any particular good beneath it, or should you think it possible that a particular good be achieved without its being contained in evil, you should query whether your reasoning might not be deficient in each of these two trains of thought. As for saying that this evil has no good beneath it, minds simply are not up to knowing that. In this regard you are perhaps like a boy who saw cupping as nothing but an evil, or like the ignorant person who sees punishment by death as an unmitigated evil, because he is considering the particular qualities of the individual executed, for whom it is indeed a sheer evil, while overlooking the common good gained for the entire population. So he does not see that a particular evil leading to a public good is an unadulterated good: something which a good man ought not to overlook.

Or you should question your reasoning concerning the second train of thought, when you said that it was possible that this good be attained without being contained in that evil. Here too there is something obscure and subtle: the possibility or impossibility of everything possible or impossible cannot be perceived spontaneously nor by a simple survey, but may perhaps be known by an obscure, subtle discernment which the majority fails to reach.

So accuse your reasoning in both these ways, and never doubt that He is the most merciful of the merciful, or that "His mercy takes precedence over His anger," and never doubt that the one who intends evil for the sake of evil and not for the sake of good is undeserving of the name of mercy. Beneath all this lies a secret whose divulgence the revelation prohibits, so be content with prayer and do not expect that it be divulged. You have been instructed by signs and given directions; so, if you are worthy of them, then ponder them!

You would have been heard
Were you calling a living person
But there is no life
In the one you call.

This is the condition of the majority—but I do not think that you, my brother, for whom this explanation is intended, lack the capacity to ponder the secrets of God—great and glorious—in the divine decree, so all these hints and notices are unnecessary for you.

---

2. Cupping is a procedure using a heated receptacle to draw blood from punctured veins by creating a partial vacuum.

Al-Ghazali Commentary

Questions for Discussion

1. Does God suffer?
2. Though al-Ghazali says he does not think that his "hints and notices" are necessary, are they perhaps necessary after all? How do these hints and notices impact the reader?

Islam

The Qur'an

The Qur'an is the primary sacred text of Islam and consists of the prophetic speeches of Muhammad recorded and collected by close associates; Muhammad himself was not able to read or write. The term Qur'an means recitation, which is exactly what the text is—recitations from Muhammad of what he said the angel Gabriel told him during meditations in the cave near Mecca. Islamic tradition holds that the angel would speak to Muhammad, then seize him and command him to recite back what the angel had just said. Through this process of memorizing and reciting, Muhammad would recite again these speeches to associates who then would write them down. This oral nature of the Qur'an explains its short verses and seemingly discordant sections. The verses are often freestanding units or sayings that may or may not be thematically connected to those around them. On the other hand, their origin in speech customizes them for use in reciting prayers, chanting, and reading aloud.

Muhammad's experiences in the cave took place over a period of nearly 23 years, during which time he himself could oversee the recording of the recitations. Thus, most scholars believe that the Qur'an is a text with tremendous integrity. Although different versions of the Qur'an existed for a few centuries after Muhammad's death, these versions differed mainly in the arrangement of suras, not in actual content. Unlike either the Jewish or Christian Bibles, the Qur'an has not undergone substantial changes or revisions, and it has not survived centuries of textual transmission and copying by unknown scribes and translators, nor is it far removed historically from its originator—in this case, speaker or "reciter"—or the founder of its tradition.

Islamic tradition reveres the Qur'an as the Word of God, much like Jesus is revered by Christianity as the Word of God made flesh. Furthermore, Allah revealed his Word in Arabic; therefore, only authorized Arabic editions and translations from the Arabic are considered legitimate. Muslims everywhere, regardless of language, are expected to memorize some sections from the Qur'an in Arabic. The passages here from the Qur'an reflect the Islamic conviction that the text is the perfectly revealed Word of Allah, wholly unique, and, as such, is authoritative and final. The Qur'an is Islam's guide for interpretation of all other texts, signs, or miracles, even though other "people of the Book" may not accept it as such.

The Qur'an

Qur'an 2:23-24

23. And if ye are in doubt as to what We have revealed from time to time to Our servant, then produce a Sura like thereunto; and call your witnesses or helpers (if there are any) besides Allah, if your (doubts) are true.

24. But if ye cannot, and of a surety ye cannot, then fear the fire whose fuel is Men and Stones, which is prepared for those who reject Faith.

The Qur'an

Qur'an 15:1-15

1. Alif Lam Ra. These are the Ayat of Revelation—of a Qur'an that makes things clear.

2. Again and again will those who disbelieve wish that they had bowed (to Allah's will) in Islam.

3. Leave them alone, to enjoy (the good things of this life) and to please themselves: let (false) Hope amuse them: soon will knowledge (undeceive them).

4. Never did We destroy a population that had not a term decreed and assigned beforehand.

5. Neither can a people anticipate its Term, nor delay it.

6. They say: "O thou to whom the Message is being revealed! Truly thou art mad (or possessed)!

7. "Why bringest thou not angels to us if it be that thou hast the Truth?"

8. We send not the angels down except for just cause: if they came (to the ungodly), behold! no respite would they have!

9. We have, without doubt, sent down the Message; and We will assuredly guard it (from corruption).

10. We did send Apostles before thee amongst the religious sects of old:

11. But never came an Apostle to them but they mocked him.

12. Even so do We let it creep into the hearts of the sinners—

13. That they should not believe in the (Message); but the ways of the ancients have passed away.

14. Even if We opened out to them a gate from heaven, and they were to continue (all day) ascending therein,

15. They would only say: "Our eyes have been intoxicated: Nay, we have been bewitched by sorcery."

The Qur'an

Qur'an 17:88-89

88. Say: "If the whole of mankind and Jinns were to gather together to produce the like of this Qur'an, they could not produce the like thereof, even if they backed up each other with help and support.

89. And We have explained to man, in this Qur'an, every kind of similitude: yet the greater part of men refuse (to receive it) except with ingratitude!

Qur'an 2:23-24, 15:1-15, 17:88-89

Questions for Discussion

Chapter 2

1. How does the Qur'an differ from the books of the "people of the Book"?
2. Why is it certain that "a sura like this one" cannot be produced?

Chapter 15

Verse 15

1. Why does the speaker say that "We let it creep into the hearts of the sinners–that they should not believe in the (Message)"?

Islam

Five Pillars of Islam

The essential nature and structure of Islamic faith and practice are expressed succinctly in the Five Pillars of Islam. Islam, like other great religions, contains differing sects and groups. But nearly all of them agree that the five pillars express the true heart of Islam. As the following passages attest, the pillars are mentioned in the Qur'an, but were clarified later by scholars. The pillars comprise the first, most basic duties people owe to Allah. Moreover, their straightforward manner illumines a powerful simplicity and elegance in Islamic spiritual life.

In short, the five pillars are (1) confess the faith in God and Muhammad as his prophet, (2) perform ritual prayers, (3) perform the fast at Ramadan, (4) give alms, and (5) make a pilgrimage to Mecca. The first—the profession of faith—is the bedrock of Islamic belief and gains one entrance into the community. The others, in their respective ways, are designed to properly orient individuals and the community toward God, to help them maintain daily—even hourly—submission to Allah in ritualistic and public ways, and to solidify the Islamic community both locally and globally into a civilization of submission to God and his commandments.

Muslims, like Christians, are encouraged to pray without ceasing, but they must pray at least five times a day. The following passage from the Hadith is a delightful story that speaks volumes about the relationship between Moses and God and tells how five came to be the required number of daily prayers. In Islamic countries, mosque functionaries called imams call people to prayer at specified times of the day. Muslims outside Islamic countries can fulfill this duty simply by facing Mecca and praying five times daily.

The required fast is performed during the month of Ramadan, which is the month when Muhammad first received revelations. Health permitting, Muslims during Ramadan are to refrain from food, drink, tobacco, and sexual activity from first light to full darkness. The Ramadan fast is followed by three days of feasting and rejoicing.

Almsgiving is required by law in Islamic states and is assessed as a sort of tax. In non-Muslim countries, alms are voluntary gifts collected by local communities. In both instances, the alms support the needy and facilitate the spread of Islam. Some Islamic scholars note that Muhammad was particularly sensitive to the needs of widows, orphans, and other poor people; he had been orphaned himself as a child and raised by an uncle.

Finally, Muslims whose health permits it must make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lifetime. The annual pilgrimage to Mecca is one of the most extraordinary events on the world's religious landscape. Hundreds of thousands of Muslims gather every year for a scripted journey lasting several days that begins at the Kaaba shrine in Mecca and ends on the Arafat plain 14 miles to the east. All pilgrims wear white, symbolizing equality before God and unity with one another. Indeed, the pilgrimage is a spectacular, once-in-a-lifetime, global statement of the unity and power that the other pillars affirm on a local and personal level throughout a Muslim's daily life.

Five Pillars of Islam

Qur'an 2:168-187

168. O ye people! eat of what is on earth, lawful and good; and do not follow the footsteps of the evil one, for he is to you an avowed enemy.

169. For he commands you what is evil and shameful, and that ye should say of Allah that of which ye have no knowledge.

170. When it is said to them: "Follow what Allah hath revealed," they say: "Nay! we shall follow the ways of our fathers." What! even though their fathers were void of wisdom and guidance?

171. The parable of those who reject faith is as if one were to shout like a goat-herd, to things that listen to nothing but calls and cries: deaf, dumb, and blind, they are void of wisdom.

172. O ye who believe! eat of the good things that We have provided for you, and be grateful to Allah, if it is Him ye worship.

173. He hath only forbidden you dead meat, and blood, and the flesh of swine, and that on which any other name hath been invoked besides that of Allah, but if one is forced by necessity, without willful disobedience, nor transgressing due limits, then is he guiltless. For Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful.

174. Those who conceal Allah's revelations in the Book, and purchase for them a miserable profit, they swallow into themselves naught but Fire; Allah will not address them on the Day of Resurrection, nor purify them; grievous will be their Penalty.

175. They are the ones who buy Error in place of guidance and torment in place of forgiveness. Ah! what boldness (they show) for the Fire!

176. (Their doom is) because Allah sent down the Book in truth but those who seek causes of dispute in the Book are in a schism far (from the purpose).

177. It is not righteousness that ye turn your faces toward East or West; but it is righteousness to believe in Allah and the Last Day, and the Angels, and the Book, and the Messengers; to spend of your substance, out of love for Him, for your kin, for orphans, for the needy, for the wayfarer, for those who ask, and for the ransom of slaves; to be steadfast in prayer, and practice regular charity; to fulfill the contracts which ye have made; and to be firm and patient, in pain (or suffering) and adversity, and throughout all periods of panic. Such are the people of truth, the Allah-fearing.

178. O ye who believe! the law of equality is prescribed to you in cases of murder; the free for the free, the slave for the slave, the woman for the woman. But if any remission is made by the brother of the slain, then grant any reasonable demand, and compensate him with handsome gratitude; this is a concession and a mercy from your Lord. After this whoever exceeds the limits shall be in grave penalty.

179. In the Law of equality there is (saving of) life to you, O ye men of understanding! that ye may restrain yourselves.

180. It is prescribed, when death approaches any of you, if he leave any goods, that he make a bequest to parents and next of kin, according to reasonable usage; this is due from the Allah-fearing.

181. If anyone changes the bequest after hearing it, the guilt shall be on those who make the change. For Allah hears and knows all things.

182. But if anyone fears partiality or wrongdoing on the part of the testator, and makes peace between (the parties concerned), there is no wrong in him; for Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful.

183. O ye who believe! fasting is prescribed to you as it was prescribed to those before you, that ye may (learn) self-restraint—

184. (Fasting) for a fixed number of days; but if any of you is ill, or on a journey, the prescribed number (should be made up) from days later. For those who can do it (with hardship), is a ransom, the feeding of one that is indigent. But he that will give more, of his own free will, it is better for him, and it is better for you, that ye fast, if ye only knew.

185. Ramadan is the (month) in which was sent down the Qur'an, as a guide to mankind, also clear (Signs) for guidance and judgment (between right and wrong). So everyone of you who is present (at his home) during that month should spend it in fasting, but if anyone is ill or on a journey, the prescribed period, (should be made up) by days later. Allah intends every facility for you, He does not want to put to difficulties. (He wants you) to complete the prescribed period, and to glorify Him in that He has guided you; and perchance ye shall be grateful.

186. When my servants ask thee concerning Me, I am indeed close (to them); I listen to the prayer of every suppliant when he calleth on Me; let them also, with a will, listen to My call, and believe in Me; that they may walk in the right way.

187. Permitted to you, on the night of the fasts, is the approach to your wives. They are your garments. And ye are their garments. Allah knoweth what ye used to do secretly among yourselves; but He turned to you and forgave you; so now associate with them, and seek what Allah hath ordained for you, and eat and drink, until the white thread of dawn appear to you distinct from its black thread; then complete your fast till the night appears; but do not associate with your wives while ye are in retreat in the mosques. Those are limits (set by) Allah; approach not nigh thereto. Thus doth Allah make clear His Signs to men, that they may learn self-restraint.

Five Pillars of Islam

Qur'an 2:196-199

196. And complete the Hajj or 'Umra in the service of Allah. But if ye are prevented (from completing it), send an offering for sacrifice, such as ye may find, and do not shave your heads until the offering reaches the place of sacrifice. And if any of you is ill, or has an ailment in his scalp, (necessitating shaving), (he should) in compensation either fast, or feed the poor, or offer sacrifice; and, when ye are in peaceful conditions (again), if anyone wishes to continue the 'Umra on to the Hajj, he must make an offering, such as he can afford it, he should fast three days during the Hajj and seven days on his return, making ten days in all. This is for those whose household is not in (the precincts of) the Sacred Mosque. And fear Allah, and know that Allah is strict in punishment.

197. For Hajj are the months well known. If anyone undertakes that duty therein, let there be no obscenity, nor wickedness, nor wrangling in the Hajj. And whatever good ye do, (be sure) Allah knoweth it. And take a provision (with you) for the journey, but the best of provisions is right conduct. So fear Me, o ye that are wise.

198. It is no crime in you if ye seek of the bounty of your Lord (during pilgrimage). Then when ye pour down from (Mount) Arafat, celebrate the praises of Allah at the Sacred Monument, and celebrate His praises as He has directed you, even though, before this, ye went astray.

199. Then pass on at a quick pace from the place whence it is usual for the multitude so to do, and ask for Allah's forgiveness. For Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful.

Five Pillars of Islam

Qur'an 2:270-284

270. And whatever ye spend in charity or devotion, be sure Allah knows it all. But the wrongdoers have no helpers.

271. If ye disclose (acts of) charity, even so it is well, but if ye conceal them, and make them reach those (really) in need, that is best for you: it will remove from you some of your (stains of) evil. And Allah is well acquainted with what ye do.

272. It is not required of thee (O Apostle), to set them on the right path, but Allah sets on the right path whom He pleaseth. Whatever of good ye give benefits your own souls, and ye shall only do so seeking the "Face" of Allah. Whatever good ye give, shall be rendered back to you, and ye shall not be dealt with unjustly.

273. (Charity is) for those in need, who, in Allah's cause, are restricted (from travel), and cannot move about in the land, seeking (for trade or work). The ignorant man thinks, because of their modesty, that they are free from want. Thou shalt know them by their (unfailing) mark: they beg not importunately from all and sundry. And whatever of good ye give, be assured Allah knoweth it well.

274. Those who (in charity) spend of their goods by night and by day, in secret and in public, have their reward with their Lord: on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve.

275. Those who devour usury will not stand except as stands one whom the Evil One by his touch hath driven to madness. That is because they say: "Trade is like usury," but Allah hath permitted trade and forbidden usury. Those who, after receiving direction from their Lord, desist, shall be pardoned for the past; their case is for Allah (to judge); but those who repeat (the offense) are Companions of the Fire: they will abide therein (forever).

276. Allah will deprive usury of all blessing, but will give increase for deeds of charity: for He loveth not creatures ungrateful and wicked.

277. Those who believe, and do deeds of righteousness, and establish regular prayers and regular charity, will have their reward with their Lord: on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve.

278. O ye who believe! fear Allah, and give up what remains of your demand for usury, if ye are indeed Believers.

279. If ye do it not, take notice of war from Allah and his Apostle: but if ye turn back, ye shall have your capital sums; deal not unjustly, and ye shall not be dealt with unjustly.

280. If the debtor is in a difficulty, grant him time till it is easy for him to repay, but if ye remit it by way of charity, that is best for you if ye only knew.

281. And fear the day when ye shall be brought back to Allah. Then shall every soul be paid what it earned, and none shall be dealt with unjustly.

282. O ye who believe! when ye deal with each other, in transactions involving future obligations in a fixed period of time, reduce them to writing. Let a scribe write down faithfully as between the parties; let not the scribe refuse to write, as Allah has taught him, so let him write. Let him who incurs the liability dictate, but let him fear His Lord Allah, and not diminish aught of what he owes. If the party liable is mentally deficient, or weak, or unable himself to dictate, let his guardian dictate faithfully. And get two witnesses, out of your own men, and if there are not two men, then a man and two women, such as ye choose, for witnesses, so that if one of them errs, the other can remind her. The witnesses should not refuse when they are called on (for evidence). Disdain not to reduce to writing (your contract) for a future period, whether it be small or big: it is juster in the sight of Allah, more suitable as evidence, and more convenient to prevent doubts among yourselves; but if it be a transaction which ye carry out on the spot among yourselves, there is no blame on you if ye reduce it not to writing. But take witness whenever ye make a commercial contract; and let neither scribe nor witness suffer harm. If ye do (such harm), it would be wickedness in you. So fear Allah; for it is Allah that teaches you. And Allah is well acquainted with all things.

283. If ye are on a journey, and cannot find a scribe, a pledge with possession (may serve the purpose). And if one of you deposits a thing on trust with another, let the trustee (faithfully) discharge his trust, and let him fear his Lord. Conceal not evidence; for whoever conceals it, his heart is tainted with sin. And Allah knoweth all that ye do.

284. To Allah belongeth all that is in the heavens and on earth. Whether ye show what is in your minds or conceal it, Allah calleth you to account for it. He forgiveth whom He pleaseth, and punisheth whom He pleaseth. For Allah hath power over all things.

Qur'an 2:168-187, 2:196-199, 2:270-284

Questions for Discussion

Chapter 2

Verse 178

1. Why is the law of equality said to be given so that "ye may restrain yourselves"?

Verse 183

2. Why is fasting prescribed as a way of learning self-restraint?

Verse 271

3. Why is it said to be better to conceal acts of charity? Do acts of charity benefit the doer in the same way as the recipient?

Verse 275

4. Why is usury so strongly condemned?

Five Pillars of Islam

Hadith: Five Pillars of Islam

Allah's Apostle said: Islam is based on (the following) five (principles):

1. To testify that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah and Muhammad is Allah's Apostle.
2. To offer the (compulsory congregational) prayers dutifully and perfectly.
3. To pay Zakat (i.e., obligatory charity).
4. To perform Hajj (i.e., Pilgrimage to Mecca).
5. To observe fast during the month of Ramadan.

Hadith: Five Pillars of Islam

Questions for Discussion

1. What does it mean to say that Islam is based on five principles? Does everything else follow from these alone?
2. Are each of the principles as important as all the others?

Five Pillars of Islam

Hadith: Moses and the Five Prayers

The Prophet said, ". . . I passed by Moses who asked me, 'What has Allah enjoined on your followers?' I replied, 'He has enjoined fifty prayers on them.' Moses said, 'Go back to your Lord (and appeal for reduction) for your followers will not be able to bear it.' (So I went back to Allah and requested for reduction) and He reduced it to half. When I passed by Moses again and informed him about it, he said, 'Go back to your Lord as your followers will not be able to bear it.' So I returned to Allah and requested for further reduction and half of it was reduced. I again passed by Moses and he said to me: 'Return to your Lord, for your followers will not be able to bear it.' So I returned to Allah and He said, 'These are five prayers and they are all (equal to) fifty (in reward) for My Word does not change.' I returned to Moses and he told me to go back once again. I replied, 'Now I feel shy of asking my Lord again.' "

Hadith: Moses and the Five Prayers

Questions for Discussion

1. Why does Moses think the Prophet's followers will be burdened by even five prayers, after the Lord has said that they are equal to fifty?
2. Why isn't the Prophet himself the one who initiates the requests?

Islam

Jihad

Perhaps no concept in Islam is more famous—and more misunderstood—than the notion of jihad, or what people commonly, albeit erroneously, call "holy war." Jihad means struggle, and in Islam it refers primarily to the inner struggle of being a person of virtue and submission to Allah in all aspects of life. This struggle is the "jihad of the heart." Secondarily, jihad refers to struggle against injustice and oppression—the "jihad of the sword." Islam, like many other religions, allows for armed self-defense, or retribution against tyranny, exploitation, and oppression. Specifically, Islamic teaching divides the world into two "houses"—the house of Islam and the house of war. Included in the house of Islam are those committed to justice, peace, and consent to worship God and God alone. The house of Islam can include people of the Book—Jews, Christians, and other monotheists—as long as they do not oppress anyone or forbid Muslims from worship. The house of war includes all those engaged in oppression, tyranny, or lawlessness, especially religious persecution against Muslims and other people of the Book. Jihad of the sword is allowed in defense of the house of Islam against the house of war.

The following passages from the Qur'an identify the limits of jihad of the sword. It is to be employed strictly for moral purposes, for the removal of injustices and oppression. Outside of specific moral objectives, jihad of the sword is illegitimate. Furthermore, jihad of the sword is always to be tempered by the jihad of the heart, which cultivates compassion, patience, forgiveness, and generosity, especially toward Jews, Christians, and other monotheists. Note particularly the references to jihad of the sword in defense of those who have been removed from their homes and lands.

Jihad

Qur'an 2:190-195

190. Fight in the cause of Allah, those who fight you, but do not transgress limits; for Allah loveth not transgressors.

191. And slay them wherever ye catch them, and turn them out from where they have turned you out; for tumult and oppression are worse than slaughter; but fight them not at the Sacred Mosque, unless they (first) fight you there; but if they fight you, slay them. Such is the reward of those who suppress faith.

192. But if they cease, Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful.

193. And fight them on until there is no more tumult or oppression, and there prevail justice and faith in Allah; but if they cease, let there be no hostility except to those who practice oppression.

194. The prohibited month for the prohibited month, and so for all things prohibited, there is the law of equality. If then anyone transgresses the prohibition against you, transgress ye likewise against him. But fear Allah, and know that Allah is with those who restrain themselves.

195. And spend of your substance in the cause of Allah, and make not your own hands contribute to your destruction, but do good; for Allah loveth those who do good.

Jihad

Qur'an 22:34-42

34. To every people did We appoint rites (of sacrifice), that they might celebrate the name of Allah over the sustenance He gave them from animals (fit for food), but your Allah is one Allah: submit then your wills to Him (in Islam) and give thou the Good News to those who humble themselves—

35. To those whose hearts, when Allah is mentioned, are filled with fear, who show patient perseverance over their afflictions, keep up regular prayer, and spend (in charity) out of what we have bestowed upon them.

36. The sacrificial camels we have made for you as among the symbols from Allah: in them is (much) good for you: then pronounce the name of Allah over them as they line up (for sacrifice): when they are down on their sides (after slaughter), eat ye thereof, and feed such as (beg not but) live in contentment, and such as beg with due humility: thus have we made animals subject to you, that ye may be grateful.

37. It is not their meat nor their blood, that reaches Allah: it is your piety that reaches Him: He has thus made them subject to you, that ye may glorify Allah for His guidance to you: and proclaim the Good News to all who do right.

38. Verily Allah will defend (from ill) those who believe: verily, Allah loveth not any that is a traitor to faith, or show ingratitude.

39. To those against whom war is made, permission is given (to fight), because they are wronged—and verily, Allah is Most powerful for their aid—

40. (They are) those who have been expelled from their homes in defiance of right—(for no cause) except that they say, "Our Lord is Allah." Did not Allah check one set of people by means of another, there would surely have been pulled down monasteries, churches, synagogues, and mosques, in which the name of Allah is commemorated in abundant measure. Allah will certainly aid those who aid His (cause); for verily Allah is Full of Strength, Exalted in Might, (Able to enforce His Will).

41. (They are) those who, if We establish them in the land, establish regular prayer and give regular charity, enjoin the right and forbid wrong: with Allah rests the end (and decision) of (all) affairs.

42. If they treat thy (mission) as false, so did the Peoples before them (with their Prophets)—the People of Noah, and 'Ad and Thamud;

Qur'an 2:190-195, 22:34-42

Questions for Discussion

Chapter 22

1. How do the ideas of land and home justify war and punishment according to this text?
2. Is the showing of gratitude a reasonable prerequisite for Allah defending you?

Islam

Women in Islam

Many Westerners view Islam as particularly oppressive to women, or at least more so than the other monotheisms. This is not exactly true. Islam, like Judaism and Christianity, originated in a highly patriarchal culture where women had very little, if any, political or economic standing on their own. Furthermore, all three traditions originated in cultures that allowed plural marriage. Many of Judaism's patriarchs and kings had more than one wife, and Christianity reveres these figures as well. Muhammad himself had more than one wife, although tradition holds that he was extremely devoted to his first wife, Khadija, and did not take other wives until after her death. Therefore, Islam joins Judaism and Christianity in carefully prescribing the role women are to have in political, social, and family life, and most often this role is significantly limited when compared to the role of men.

Islamic scholars, however, are quick to point out that Islamic teaching is far more liberal toward women in some areas than Judaism and Christianity. Like the other two traditions, it exhorts women to dress modestly, including wearing head coverings and/or veils. Also, women are encouraged to make their husbands and families their chief priority; they are exempted from many religious duties so they may attend to household and family matters. The following passages, however, show that Islam gives women more standing in divorce proceedings and in inheritance and other property rights than, for example, allowed by Mosaic law in Judaism or by Jesus' revision of Mosaic divorce law. Also, the passages emphasize the equal standing of men and women before God and admonish men to bear this in mind in their dealings with women.

Finally, while the Qur'an allows plural marriage, it specifically exhorts men to marry more than one wife only if they can treat each wife equitably and provide well for them. Some liberal scholars suggest that passages like these imply that monogamy is the best choice since very few—if any—men can act with complete equanimity toward several wives. Other Islamic scholars interpret the Qur'an's support of plural marriage in the seventh-century context of possible hardship for and exploitation of widows or women without protection from men. Better to be one of several wives, it is said, than to be alone and vulnerable.

Women in Islam

Qur'an 2:228-232

228. Divorced women shall wait concerning themselves for three monthly periods, nor is it lawful for them, to hide what Allah hath created in their wombs, if they have faith in Allah and the Last Day. And their husbands have the better right to take them back in that period, if they wish for reconciliation. And women shall have rights similar to the rights against them, according to what is equitable; but men have a degree (of advantage) over them and Allah is Exalted in Power, Wise.

229. A divorce is only permissible twice: after that, the parties should either hold together on equitable terms or separate with kindness. It is not lawful for you, (men), to take back any of your gifts (from your wives), except when both parties fear that they would be unable to keep the limits ordained by Allah. If ye (judges) do indeed fear that they would be unable to keep the limits ordained by Allah, there is no blame on either of them if she give something for her freedom. These are the limits ordained by Allah; so do not transgress them. If any do transgress the limits ordained by Allah, such persons wrong (themselves as well as others).

230. So if a husband divorces his wife (irrevocably), he cannot, after that, remarry her until after she has married another husband and he has divorced her. In that case there is no blame on either of them if they reunite, provided they feel that they can keep the limits ordained by Allah. Such are the limits ordained by Allah, which He makes plain to those who understand.

231. When ye divorce women, and they fulfill the term of their ('Iddah), either take them back on equitable terms or set them free on equitable terms; but do not take them back to injure them or to take undue advantage; if anyone does that, He wrongs his own soul. Do not treat Allah's Signs as a jest, but solemnly rehearse Allah's favors on you, and the fact that He sent down to you the Book and Wisdom, for your instruction. And fear Allah, and know that Allah is well acquainted with all things.

232. When ye divorce women, and they fulfill the term of their ('Iddah), do not prevent them from marrying their (former) husbands, if they mutually agree on equitable terms. This instruction is for all amongst you, who believe in Allah and the Last Day. That is (the course making for) most virtue and purity amongst you, and Allah knows, and ye know not.

Women in Islam

Qur'an 4:1-34

1. O mankind! reverence your Guardian-Lord, Who created you from a single person, created, of like nature, his mate, and from them twain scattered (like seeds) countless men and women; reverence Allah, through Whom ye demand your mutual (rights), and (reverence) the wombs (that bore you): for Allah ever watches over you.

2. To orphans restore their property (when they reach their age), nor substitute (your) worthless things for (their) good ones; and devour not their substance (by mixing it up) with your own. For this is indeed a great sin.

3. If ye fear that ye shall not be able to deal justly with the orphans, marry women of your choice, two, or three, or four; but if ye fear that ye shall not be able to deal justly (with them), then only one, or (a captive) that your right hands possess. That will be more suitable, to prevent you from doing injustice.

4. And give the women (on marriage) their dower as a free gift; but if they, of their own good pleasure, remit any part of it to you, take it and enjoy it with right good cheer.

5. To those weak of understanding make not over your property, which Allah hath made a means of support for you, but feed and clothe them therewith, and speak to them words of kindness and justice.

6. Make trial of orphans until they reach the age of marriage; if then ye find sound judgment in them, release their property to them; but consume it not wastefully, nor in haste against their growing up. If the guardian is well-off, let him claim no remuneration, but if he is poor, let him have for himself what is just and reasonable. When ye release their property to them, take witnesses in their presence: but All-Sufficient is Allah in taking account.

7. From what is left by parents and those nearest related there is a share for men and a share for women, whether the property be small or large, a determinate share.

8. But if at the time of division other relatives, or orphans, or poor, are present, feed them out of the (property), and speak to them words of kindness and justice.

9. Let those (disposing of an estate) have the same fear in their minds as they would have for their own if they had left a helpless family behind: let them fear Allah, and speak words of appropriate (comfort).

10. Those who unjustly eat up the property of orphans, eat up a Fire into their own bodies: they will soon be enduring a Blazing Fire!

11. Allah (thus) directs you as regards your children's (inheritance): to the male, a portion equal to that of two females: if only daughters, two or more, their share is two-thirds of the inheritance; if only one, her share is a half. For parents, a sixth share of the inheritance to each, if the deceased left children; if no children, and the parents are the (only) heirs, the mother has a third; if the deceased left brothers (or sisters), the mother has a sixth. (The distribution in all cases (is) after the payment of legacies and debts. Ye know not whether your parents or your children are nearest to you in benefit. These are settled portions ordained by Allah and Allah is All-Knowing, All-Wise.

12. In what your wives leave, your share is a half, if they leave no child; but if they leave a child, ye get a fourth; after payment of legacies and debts. In what ye leave, their share is a fourth, if ye leave no child; but if ye leave a child, they get an eighth; after payment of legacies and debts. If the man or woman whose inheritance is in question, has left neither ascendants nor descendants, but has left a brother or a sister, each one of the two gets a sixth; but if more than two, they share in a third; after payment of legacies and debts; so that no loss is caused (to anyone). Thus is it ordained by Allah, and Allah is All-Knowing, Most Forbearing.

13. Those are limits set by Allah: those who obey Allah and His Apostle will be admitted to Gardens with rivers flowing beneath, to abide therein (forever) and that will be the Supreme achievement.

14. But those who disobey Allah and His Apostle and transgress His limits will be admitted to a Fire, to abide therein: And they shall have a humiliating punishment.

15. If any of your women are guilty of lewdness, take the evidence of four (reliable) witnesses from amongst you against them; and if they testify, confine them to houses until death do claim them, or Allah ordain for them some (other) way.

16. If two men among you are guilty of lewdness, punish them both. If they repent and amend, leave them alone; for Allah is Oft-Returning, Most Merciful.

17. Allah accepts the repentance of those who do evil in ignorance and repent soon afterwards; to them will Allah turn in mercy; for Allah is full of knowledge and wisdom.

18. Of no effect is the repentance of those who continue to do evil, until death faces one of them, and he says, "Now have I repented indeed;" nor of those who die rejecting faith; for them have We prepared a punishment most grievous.

19. O ye who believe! ye are forbidden to inherit women against their will. Nor should ye treat them with harshness, that ye may take away part of the dower ye have given them, except where they have been guilty of open lewdness; on the contrary live with them on a footing of kindness and equity. If ye take a dislike to them it may be that ye dislike a thing, and Allah brings about through it a great deal of good.

20. But if ye decide to take one wife in place of another, even if ye had given the latter a whole treasure for dower, take not the least bit of it back: would ye take it by slander and manifest wrong?

21. And how could ye take it when ye have gone in unto each other, and they have taken from you a solemn covenant?

22. And marry not women whom your fathers married, except what is past: it was shameful and odious, an abominable custom indeed.

23. Prohibited to you (for marriage) are—your mothers, daughters, sisters; father's sisters, mother's sisters; brother's daughters, sister's daughters, foster-mothers (who gave you suck), foster-sisters; your wives' mothers; your step-daughters under your guardianship, born of your wives to whom ye have gone in, no prohibition if ye have not gone in; (those who have been) wives of your sons proceeding from your loins; and two sisters in wedlock at one and the same time, except for what is past; for Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful.

24. Also (prohibited are) women already married, except those whom your right hands possess. Thus hath Allah ordained (prohibitions) against you: except for these, all others are lawful, provided ye seek (them in marriage) with gifts from your property, desiring chastity, not lust. Seeing that ye derive benefit from them, give them their dowers (at least) as prescribed; but if after a dower is prescribed, ye agree mutually (to vary it), there is no blame on you, and Allah is All-Knowing, All-Wise.

25. If any of you have not the means wherewith to wed free believing women, they may wed believing girls from among those whom your right hands possess: and Allah hath full knowledge about your faith. Ye are one from another: wed them with the leave of their owners, and give them their dowers, according to what is reasonable: they should be chaste, not lustful, nor taking paramours: when they are taken in wedlock, if they fall into shame, their punishment is half that for free women. This (permission) is for those among you who fear sin; but it is better for you that ye practice self-restraint: and Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful.

26. Allah doth wish to make clear to you and to show you the ordinances of those before you; and (He doth wish to) turn to you (in Mercy): and Allah is All-Knowing, All-Wise.

27. Allah doth wish to turn to you, but the wish of those who follow their lusts is that ye should turn away (from Him)—far, far away.

28. Allah doth wish to lighten your (difficulties): for man was created weak (in flesh).

29. O ye who believe! eat not up your property among yourselves in vanities: but let there be amongst you traffic and trade by mutual goodwill: nor kill (or destroy) yourselves: for verily Allah hath been to you Most Merciful.

30. If any do that in rancor and injustice, soon shall We cast them into the Fire: and easy it is for Allah.

31. If ye (but) eschew the most heinous of the things which ye are forbidden to do, We shall expel out of you all the evil in you, and admit you to a Gate of great honor.

32. And in no wise covet those things in which Allah hath bestowed His gifts more freely on some of you than on others: to men is allotted what they earn, and to women what they earn: but ask Allah of His bounty: for Allah hath full knowledge of all things.

33. To (benefit) everyone, We have appointed sharers and heirs to property left by parents and relatives. To those also, to whom your right hand was pledged, give their due portion: for truly Allah is witness to all things.

34. Men are the protectors and maintainers of women, because Allah has given the one more (strength) than the other, and because they support them from their means. Therefore the righteous women are devoutly obedient, and guard in (the husband's) absence what Allah would have them guard. As to those women on whose part ye fear disloyalty and ill-conduct, admonish them (first), (next), refuse to share their beds, (and last) beat them (lightly); but if they return to obedience, seek not against them means (of annoyance): for Allah is Most High, Great (above you all).

Qur'an 2:228-232, 4:1-34

Questions for Discussion

Chapter 2

1. Why does the text take the trouble to say "know that Allah is well acquainted with all things"?
2. Do these rules help build strong families? Strong communities?

Chapter 4

1. This text says that "men are the protectors and maintainers of women." What does this mean? Is it true?
2. What does the phrase "reverence the wombs (that bore you)" mean here? Is "reverence" a broader theme in this text?

Further Reading

Abu-Lughod, Lila, ed. Remaking Women: Feminism and Modernity in the Middle East. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1998.

Ahmed, Leila. Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate. New Hven: Yale University Press, 1992. Reprint, 1993.

Dillon, Michael. China's Muslims. Hong Kong and New York: Oxford University Press, 1996.

Esposito, John L. and John O. Voll. Islam and Democracy: Religion, Identity & Conflict Resolution in the Muslim World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. Reprint, 1998.

Lawrence, Bruce B. Shattering the Myth: Islam Beyond Violence. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1998. Reprint, 2000.

Mahmud, S. F. A Short History of Islam, 2d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.

Mir-Hosseini, Ziba. Islam and Gender: The Religious Debate in Contemporary Iran. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1999.

Neusner, Jacob and Tamara Sonn. Comparing Religions Through Law: Judaism and Islam. London and New York: Routledge, 1999.

Peters, F. E. Children of Abraham: Judaism, Christianity, Islam. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984. Reprint, 1990.

———. The Hajj: The Muslim Pilgrimage to Mecca and the Holy Places. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1994. Reprint, 1996.

Viorst, Milton. In the Shadow of the Prophet: The Struggle for the Soul of Islam. New York: Anchor/Doubleday, 1998. Reprint, Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 2001.